IP UPDATE
Exploring the latest in intellectual property law
IP UPDATE
Exploring the latest in intellectual property law
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Looks like estoppel, sounds like estoppel … but it’s just director discretion

by | Jun 26, 2025 |

The acting director of the US Patent & Trademark Office (PTO) granted a patent owner’s request for discretionary denial and denied institution of an inter partes review (IPR) proceeding, finding that the petitioner engaged in unfair dealings by challenging a patent on which its employees were the inventors. Tessell, Inc. v. Nutanix, Inc., IPR2025-00322 (PTAB June 12, 2025) (Stewart, Act. Dir.)

Four individuals were Nutanix employees when they invented the subject matter of the challenged patent. Two of the individuals left to form Tessell and later hired the other two. Tessell, which now includes nearly all of the inventors of the challenged patent, filed a petition for IPR arguing that the claims of the patent were unpatentable. Nutanix filed a request for discretionary denial, which Tessell opposed.

The doctrine of assignor estoppel generally prevents an inventor who has sold or assigned a patent from challenging the validity of the patent. Although assignor estoppel does not apply in IPR proceedings, the acting director explained that the PTO may consider unfair dealings as a factor when determining whether to exercise discretion to deny institution under 35 U.S.C. § 314(a). The acting director found that it was inappropriate for the inventors to have used PTO resources to obtain a patent only to later advocate for its unpatentability. The acting director therefore exercised discretion to deny institution.



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Case closed: Commission sanctions ruling isn’t an import decision

by | Jun 26, 2025 |

The US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit dismissed an appeal for lack of jurisdiction, finding that a denial of sanctions at the International Trade Commission was not a “final determination” under trade law because it did not affect the exclusion of imported goods. Realtek Semiconductor Corp. v. ITC and Future Link Systems, LLC, Case No. 23-1187 (Fed. Cir. June 18, 2025) (Reyna, Bryson, Stoll, JJ.)

In 2019, Future Link entered into a license agreement with MediaTek, Inc. (not a party to the present litigation), which included a provision for a lump-sum payment if Future Link filed a lawsuit against Realtek. Future Link subsequently initiated a patent infringement complaint against Realtek before the Commission. During the proceedings, Future Link settled with a third party and determined that the settlement resolved the underlying dispute, prompting it to notify Realtek and ultimately withdraw its complaint. Realtek moved for sanctions, citing the MediaTek agreement as improper, but the administrative law judge (ALJ), while expressing concern about the agreement’s lawfulness, found no evidence it influenced the complaint and denied sanctions. The Commission terminated the investigation after no petition for review of the ALJ’s termination order was filed. Realtek then petitioned the Commission to review the denial of sanctions, but the Commission declined, closing the sanctions proceeding. Realtek appealed to the Federal Circuit, not challenging the investigation’s termination but seeking an order requiring Future Link to pay a fine based on the alleged impropriety of its agreement with MediaTek.

Realtek argued that the Commission and the ALJ violated the Administrative Procedure Act (APA). In response, the Commission and Future Link not only defended the denial on the merits but also challenged the Federal Circuit’s jurisdiction and Realtek’s standing to appeal. The Court agreed that it lacked jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1295(a)(6), which only authorizes review of final determinations under specific subsections of Section 337 of the Tariff Act of 1930 (19 U.S.C. § 1337). Because the Commission’s denial of sanctions under subsection (h) does not constitute a “final determination” under § 1337(c), the Court declined to address standing or the merits of the sanctions issue.

The Federal Circuit emphasized that a “final determination” within the meaning of § 1295(a)(6) refers to decisions affecting the exclusion of imported articles, such as those made under subsections (d), (e), (f), or (g) of § 1337. Realtek argued that the Commission’s denial of its sanctions request qualified as a final merits decision, but the Court disagreed, citing long-standing precedent, including its 1986 decision in Viscofan, S.A. v. ITC, that limits appellate jurisdiction to exclusion-related rulings. Because the sanctions decision had no bearing on whether products were excluded from importation, the Court held that it lacked the authority to review and dismissed the appeal.



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CRISPR Clarity: Enablement Is Analyzed Differently Under §§ 102 and 112

by | Jun 18, 2025 | ,

In a decision underscoring the distinct standards governing enablement under §§ 102 and 112, the US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit affirmed the Patent Trial & Appeal Board’s finding that a prior art reference was enabling for purposes of anticipation, even in the absence of working examples. Agilent Technologies, Inc. v. Synthego Corp., Case Nos. 23-2186; -2187 (Fed. Cir. June 11, 2025) (Prost, Linn, Reyna, JJ.)

The case centers on CRISPR, the gene-editing technology that has reshaped the frontiers of biology and biotechnology. Agilent owns patents that claim chemically modified guide RNAs (gRNAs) designed to improve stability and performance in CRISPR-Cas systems. Synthego filed an inter partes review (IPR) petition asserting that the patents were unpatentable. The Board found all claims unpatentable, relying on a 2014 publication by Pioneer Hi-Bred that disclosed similar modified gRNAs. Agilent appealed.

Agilent challenged the Board’s finding that the prior art was enabling, arguing that Pioneer Hi-Bred merely proposed a research plan without demonstrating which specific modifications would yield functional gRNAs. Agilent emphasized that the reference lacked working examples and disclosed numerous nonfunctional sequences, contending that a skilled artisan would not have been able to identify a successful embodiment without undue experimentation. It also argued that the nascent state of CRISPR technology in 2014 compounded the unpredictability, making the reference non-enabling. In support, Agilent relied heavily on the Supreme Court’s 2023 decision in Amgen v. Sanofi, where the Supreme Court invalidated a broad genus claim for failing to enable its full scope.

The Federal Circuit was not persuaded. The Court drew a clear distinction between enablement under § 112 (which governs patent validity) and enablement under § 102 (which governs anticipation). The Court explained that the bar is lower for the latter, and that a prior art reference need only enable a single embodiment within the scope of the claim. While Amgen involved § 112, the Court emphasized that this case turned on § 102, where the standard is less demanding.

The Federal Circuit grounded this distinction in both the statutory text and the underlying purpose of the respective provisions. Statutorily, § 112 requires that a patent specification enable a person of ordinary skill in the art to “make and use” the invention. Section 102, by contrast, contains no such requirement. This divergence reflects a difference in purpose: § 112 ensures that the patentee does not claim more than they have taught, thereby preventing overbroad monopolies. As the Supreme Court explained in Amgen, “[t]he more a party claims, the broader the monopoly it demands, the more it must enable.” But the Federal Circuit emphasized that the Supreme Court’s reasoning in Amgen was rooted in the patentee’s burden to support the full scope of a genus claim under § 112. That concern, the Court explained, does not apply in the § 102 context, where the question is not how much the prior art claims, but whether it teaches enough for a skilled artisan to practice at least one embodiment without undue [...]

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Radio Silence Alone Doesn’t Prove Equitable Estoppel Defense

by | Jun 18, 2025 |

The US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit reversed a district court’s summary judgment grant based on an equitable estoppel defense, finding that the accused infringer failed to show that the patent owner’s silence or inaction influenced the decision to migrate to the accused system. Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft v. Sirius XM Radio Inc., Case No. 23-2267 (Fed. Cir. June 9, 2025) (Lourie, Dyk, Reyna, JJ.)

In 1998, Fraunhofer licensed patents related to satellite radio to WorldSpace International Network. This license was exclusive, with the right to sublicense. However, Fraunhofer also began a collaboration with XM Satellite Radio to develop satellite radio and required that XM obtain a sublicense from WorldSpace. XM ultimately launched a “high-band” satellite radio system. In 2008, XM joined Sirius Satellite Radio, to form Sirius XM (SXM). Sirius Satellite Radio had its own “low-band” system. The low- and high-band systems were incompatible, so SXM investigated which system it would use eventually, and it ultimately decided to shift toward the high-band system.

Meanwhile, WorldSpace filed for bankruptcy in 2008. In 2010, Fraunhofer, in its view, terminated its licensing agreement with WorldSpace. In 2011, XM formally merged with SXM. It is disputed whether SXM was licensed to the asserted patents after these events, but regardless, Fraunhofer remained silent until 2015, when it notified SXM that it believed that because its agreement with WorldSpace was supposedly terminated in 2010, the rights in the asserted patents had reverted to Fraunhofer, and thus SXM was not licensed and was infringing. Fraunhofer filed suit. However, the district court found that because of Fraunhofer’s silence, Fraunhofer was equitably estopped from bringing the patent infringement claims against SXM. Fraunhofer appealed.

The Federal Circuit reversed. There are three requirements for a successful equitable estoppel defense:

  • The patentee must engage in misleading conduct leading the accused infringer to reasonably infer that the patentee does not intend to assert its patent against the accused infringer.
  • The accused infringer must rely on that conduct.
  • As a result of that reliance, the accused infringer must be in a position such that it would be materially prejudiced if the patentee was allowed to proceed with its infringement action.

The Federal Circuit agreed with the district court that Fraunhofer’s refusal to raise the issue of potential infringement from 2010 until 2015, despite asserting that it reacquired the rights to the asserted patents in 2010, was misleading conduct. Fraunhofer knew that SXM’s product may have infringed the asserted patents and had previously required SXM to obtain a license to those patents. Fraunhofer also had built allegedly infringing features. Thus, it was reasonable for SXM to infer that Fraunhofer would not bring a claim against SXM.

However, the Federal Circuit disagreed with the district court on the issue of reliance. To show reliance, the Court explained that SXM must have established “that it at least considered Fraunhofer’s silence or inaction and that such consideration influenced its decision to migrate to the accused high-band system.” The evidence did not indisputably establish influence over SXM’s [...]

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Jurisdiction Affirmed: Trademark Ripples Reach US Shores

by | Jun 18, 2025 |

Addressing for the first time the issue of whether a foreign intellectual property holding company is subject to personal jurisdiction in the United States, the US Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit reversed a district court’s dismissal and determined that the holding company, which had sought and obtained more than 60 US trademark registrations, had sufficient contacts with the US to support exercise of personal jurisdiction. Jekyll Island-State Park Auth. v. Polygroup Macau Ltd., Case No. 23-114 (11th Cir. June. 10, 2025) (Rosenbaum, Lagoa, Wilson, JJ.)

Polygroup Macau is an intellectual property holding company registered and headquartered in the British Virgin Islands. Jekyll Island is a Georgia entity that operates the Summer Waves Water Park and owns a federally registered trademark for the words SUMMER WAVES. In 2021, Jekyll Island discovered that Polygroup Macau had registered nearly identical SUMMER WAVES marks. After Polygroup Macau asked to buy Jekyll Island’s domain name, summerwaves.com, Jekyll Island sued Polygroup Macau for trademark infringement and to cancel Polygroup Macau’s marks. The district court dismissed the case for lack of personal jurisdiction, finding that “the ‘causal connection’ between Polygroup Macau’s activities in the United States and Jekyll Island’s trademark claims was too ‘attenuated’ to support personal jurisdiction.” Jekyll Island appealed.

The Eleventh Circuit reviewed whether personal jurisdiction was proper under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 4(k)(2), also known as the national long-arm statute. Rule 4(k)(2) allows courts to exercise personal jurisdiction over foreign defendants that have enough contacts with the US as a whole, but not with a single state, to support personal jurisdiction. To establish personal jurisdiction under Rule 4(k)(2), a plaintiff must show that:

  • Its claim arises under federal law.
  • The defendant is not subject to jurisdiction in any state’s courts of general jurisdiction.
  • “[E]xercising jurisdiction is consistent with the United States Constitution and laws.”

The parties agreed that the first two elements were satisfied; the only dispute was whether the exercise of jurisdiction was consistent with due process.

The Eleventh Circuit noted that in the patent context, the Federal Circuit determined that a foreign defendant that “sought and obtained a property interest from a U.S. agency has purposefully availed itself of the laws of the United States.” The Eleventh Circuit found that a trademark registration is even stronger than patent rights because a “trademark registrant must show that he is already using the mark in U.S. commerce to identify and distinguish goods or intends to soon.” Polygroup Macau had more than 60 registrations and allowed other companies and customers to use those marks, which was enough to establish that it had sought out the benefits afforded under US law.

Additionally, while Polygroup Macau did not license its trademark rights, it permitted other related companies to use the SUMMER WAVES trademark to identify their products. Products marked with Polygroup Macau’s registered mark were sold in the US through dozens of retailers. Although there were no formal written agreements, the Eleventh Circuit found that Polygroup Macau exercised some degree of control [...]

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No Blank Check: Vendor Can’t Claim Declaratory Judgment From Customer Lawsuits Alone

by | Jun 18, 2025 |

The US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit affirmed a district court’s dismissal of a declaratory judgment action, explaining that declaratory judgment jurisdiction does not “arise merely on the basis that a party learns of the existence of a patent owned by another or even perceives such a patent to pose a risk of infringement, without some affirmative act by the patentee.” Mitek Sys., Inc. v. United Servs. Auto. Ass’n, Case No. 23-1687 (Fed. Cir. June 12, 2025) (Taranto, Schall, Chen, JJ.)

Mitek develops a mobile image capture software development kit called MiSnap. United Services Automobile Association (USAA) sent letters to and filed infringement claims against several of Mitek’s bank customers. Mitek sought a declaratory judgment that it and its customers did not infringe four USAA patents related to mobile check deposits, arguing that it had standing based on a reasonable apprehension of suit and indemnity demands from its customers. The district court dismissed the declaratory judgment action, which Mitek appealed. The Federal Circuit vacated and remanded the district court’s dismissal, finding that the decision lacked adequate explanation and support.

On remand, the district court again analyzed Mitek’s two jurisdictional bases for its declaratory judgment action: potential liability for infringement and alleged demands for indemnity made by licensees after USAA sent letters seeking to license USAA patents. The district court again dismissed the case, determining that Mitek could not establish a case or controversy between USAA and Mitek as to infringement, and determining that indemnification agreements and USAA’s letters to Mitek customers did not create a reasonable potential for Mitek’s indemnification liability. Even if it had jurisdiction, the district court stated that it would exercise its discretion to decline jurisdiction, because the best means by which Mitek could defend the MiSnap software used by the banks was to intervene in a future litigation brought by USAA against a Mitek customer regarding the asserted patents. Mitek again appealed.

The threshold question for declaratory judgment jurisdiction is “whether the facts alleged, under all the circumstances, show that there is a substantial controversy, between parties having adverse legal interests, of sufficient immediacy and reality to warrant the issuance of a declaratory judgment.”

Regarding Mitek’s infringement basis, the Federal Circuit found that Mitek did not establish a reasonable potential of the suit for infringement. The Court’s consideration also included post-filing events, including settlements of related customer suits and Patent & Trial Appeal Board decisions invalidating asserted patent claims. These developments further undermined any ongoing controversy. The Court then addressed the allegations of direct infringement, induced infringement, and contributory infringement:

  • Direct Infringement. Mitek admitted that MiSnap alone did not perform all elements of any asserted claim. USAA also never accused MiSnap of satisfying every limitation of an asserted claim. Instead, MiSnap’s “unadulterated” software implemented by third-party banks failed to meet certain elements of the asserted claims. And although Mitek stated that it evaluated the complete mobile deposit system, Mitek could not have had a reasonable apprehension of suit based on testing its [...]

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In Determining Subject Matter Eligibility, the Name of the Game Is the Claim

by | Jun 18, 2025 |

The US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit overturned a district court grant of summary judgment of patent eligibility under 35 U.S.C. § 101 in connection with a patent directed to remote check deposit technology, explaining that details in the specification but not recited in the claims could not be relied on to meet the test for abstraction. United Services Automobile Association v. PNC Bank N.A., Case No. 23-1639 (Fed. Cir. May 6, 2025) (Dyk, Clevenger, Hughes, JJ.)

The patent in issue was directed to a system for allowing a customer to deposit a check using the customer’s handheld mobile device and claimed a “system configured to authenticate the customer using data representing a customer fingerprint.”

After the United Services Automobile Association (USAA) sued PNC for infringement of the patent, both parties filed motions for summary judgment seeking an adjudication as to whether the claims were patent eligible under § 101. The district court granted USAA’s motion, finding that the claims were not directed to an abstract idea and therefore were patent eligible. After a five-day trial, the jury found no invalidity of the asserted claims and found that PNC had infringed. PNC appealed.

The Federal Circuit found that the asserted claim was directed to the abstract idea of depositing a check using a handheld mobile device. At Alice step one, the Court found that the invention claimed steps for carrying out the process of a mobile check deposit by “instructing the customer to take a photo of [a] check,” “using [a] wireless network” to transmit a copy of the photo, and having the configured system “check for errors.” The Court determined that this amounted to a routine process implemented by a general-purpose device. The Court further found that the claim recited routine data collection and analysis steps that have been traditionally performed by banks and people depositing checks – namely reviewing checks, recognizing relevant data, checking for errors, and storing the resultant data.

USAA argued that “accomplishing check deposit on a consumer device required the development of extremely non-obvious algorithms.” The Federal Circuit rejected this argument, noting that the Court focuses on the claims, not the specification, to determine eligibility, because “the level of detail in the specification does not transform a claim reciting only an abstract concept into a patent-eligible system or method.” Since the claims did not recite the algorithms and neither the specification nor the claims contained a “clear description of how the claimed system is configured,” but only “a concept of improving the check deposit process,” the Court found that the claimed subject matter was directed only to an abstract idea.

At Alice step two (not addressed by the district court, which concluded that the claims passed muster at Alice step one), the Federal Circuit considered whether the claim elements contained an inventive concept sufficient to transform the abstract idea into a patent-eligible application. The Court found no inventive concept present, as computer-mediated implementation of routine or conventional activity is not enough to provide [...]

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Speculation of Harm Isn’t Standing: Not Every Adverse Board Decision Is Ticket to Appeal

by | Jun 12, 2025 | ,

After assessing whether a patent owner had standing to appeal the Patent Trial & Appeal Board’s final written decision, the US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit found no injury in fact to support Article III jurisdiction and dismissed the appeal. Dolby Labs. Licensing Corp. v. Unified Patents, LLC, Case No. 23-2110 (Fed. Cir. June 5, 2025) (Moore, Clevenger, Chen, JJ.)

Dolby owns a patent covering a prediction method involving an in-loop filter. Unified Patents, claiming to be the sole real party in interest (RPI), filed an inter partes review (IPR) challenging several patent claims as anticipated and obvious. Dolby contested the challenge, identifying nine additional entities it argued should have been named as RPIs (alleged RPIs). The Board declined to rule on Dolby’s inclusion, however, and proceeded with Unified as the sole RPI.

In its final written decision, the Board found that Unified failed to establish the unpatentability of any challenged claims. Consistent with the US Patent & Trademark Office’s practice, it also declined to address the RPI dispute, finding it immaterial – there was no evidence the alleged RPIs were estopped from filing their own IPRs later or that Unified had advantageously or strategically omitted them. Dolby appealed.

The Federal Circuit explained that when it reviews final Board decisions, its jurisdiction is constrained by Article III’s “Cases” and “Controversies” requirement. To establish standing, an appellant must demonstrate:

  • A concrete and particularized injury in fact that is actual or imminent, not speculative.
  • A causal link between the injury and the appellee’s challenged conduct.
  • A likelihood that the injury will be redressed by a favorable ruling.

Dolby asserted standing to appeal the Board’s refusal to address the RPI dispute based on three grounds:

Its statutory right to appeal as a “dissatisfied” party under 35 U.S.C. § 319.

  • The denial of its right to information under 35 U.S.C. § 312(a)(2).
  • An injury in fact arising from potential breaches of license agreements by the alleged RPIs and possible conflicts of interest involving the Board’s administrative patent judges.

The Federal Circuit rejected Dolby’s argument that it had a right to appeal based solely on dissatisfaction with the Board’s decision. The Court explained that the right to appeal a Board decision under the America Invents Act (AIA) requires Article III standing. The Court also dismissed Dolby’s argument for a statutory right to RPI information, finding that the AIA does not create an informational right. The Court explained that unlike statutes such as the Federal Advisory Committee Act or the Federal Election Campaign Act, which expressly grant public access to information, the AIA lacks a public access provision and explicitly limits judicial review of IPR-related determinations, including RPI disclosures.

As to Dolby’s right to appeal the Board decision, the Federal Circuit found Dolby’s argument too speculative to establish standing, citing four key deficiencies:

Dolby failed to assert that any alleged RPIs were party to license agreements, undermining its claim of potential breach.



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Running on Empty: ‘Stang’ With No Anthropomorphic Characteristics Isn’t Copyrightable Character

by | Jun 5, 2025 |

The US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit affirmed a district court’s denial of copyright protection for a car that had a name but no anthropomorphic or protectable characteristics. Carroll Shelby Licensing, Inc. v. Denice Shakarian Halicki et al., Case No. 23-3731 (9th Cir. May 27, 2025) (Nguyen, Mendoza, JJ.; Kernodle Dist. J., sitting by designation).

In 2009, Denice Shakarian Halicki and Carroll Shelby Licensing entered into a settlement agreement resolving a lawsuit concerning Shelby’s alleged infringement of Halicki’s asserted copyright interest in a Ford Mustang known as “Eleanor,” which appeared in a series of films dating back to the 1970s. Under the agreement, Shelby, a custom car shop, was prohibited from producing GT-500E Ford Mustangs incorporating Eleanor’s distinctive hood or headlight design. Shortly thereafter, Shelby licensed Classic Recreations to manufacture “GT-500CR” Mustangs, a move Halicki viewed as a breach of the settlement agreement. Halicki contacted Classic Recreations and demanded it cease and desist in the production of the GT-500CRs.

Shelby filed a lawsuit alleging breach of the settlement agreement and seeking declaratory relief. Halicki counterclaimed for copyright infringement and breach of the agreement. Following a bench trial, the district court ruled in Shelby’s favor on both the breach and infringement claims but declined to grant declaratory relief. Shelby appealed.

The Ninth Circuit began by addressing whether “Eleanor” qualified for copyright protection as a character under the Copyright Act. Although the act does not explicitly list characters among the types of works it protects, the Ninth Circuit has recognized that certain characters may be entitled to such protection. The applicable standard, articulated in 2015 by the Ninth Circuit in DC Comics v. Towle, sets forth a three-pronged test, under which the character must:

  • Have “physical as well as conceptual qualities”
  • Be “sufficiently delineated to be recognizable as the same character whenever it appears” with “consistent, identifiable character traits and attributes”
  • Be “especially distinctive” and have “some unique elements of expression.”

The Ninth Circuit concluded that Eleanor failed to satisfy any of the three prongs of the Towle test. As to the first prong, the Court found that Eleanor functioned merely as a prop and lacked the anthropomorphized qualities or independent agency associated with protectable characters. Regarding the second prong, the Court noted that Eleanor’s appearance varied significantly across the films in terms of model, colors, and condition. Under the third prong, the Court found that Eleanor lacked the distinctiveness necessary to elevate it beyond the level of a generic sports car commonly featured in similar films. Thus, the Court concluded that Eleanor did not qualify as a character, let alone a copyrightable one.

The Ninth Circuit next turned to the parties’ settlement agreement. While California law permits the use of extrinsic evidence to aid in contract interpretation, the Court found the language sufficiently unambiguous to render such evidence unnecessary. Notably, the parties did not include “Eleanor” as a defined term in the agreement, and the term was used in varying contexts throughout the document, conveying different meanings [...]

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No Fair Use Defense Results in Default Judgment

by | Jun 5, 2025 |

The US Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit reversed a district court’s dismissal of a copyright infringement claim alleging copying of a photograph, finding that the defendant’s use of the photograph did not constitute fair use and that the district court erred in its substantive fair use analysis. Jana Romanova v. Amilus Inc., Case No. 23-828 (2d Cir. May 23, 2025) (Jacobs, Leval, Sullivan, JJ.) (Sullivan, J., concurring).

Jana Romanova, a professional photographer, sued Amilus for willful copyright infringement, alleging that the company unlawfully published her photograph, originally licensed to National Geographic, without authorization on its subscription-based website. Amilus failed to appear or respond in the district court proceedings, and Romanova sought entry of default judgment.

Instead of granting the motion, the district court sua sponte raised the affirmative defense of fair use. After considering Romanova’s show cause order response, the district court dismissed the complaint with prejudice, finding that the fair use defense was “clearly established on the face of the complaint.” Romanova appealed on substantive and procedural grounds.

Romanova argued that the district court erred in finding a basis for the fair use defense within the four corners of the complaint and erred by sua sponte raising a substantive, non-jurisdictional affirmative defense on behalf of a defendant that failed to appear or respond.

Citing the Supreme Court decisions in Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music (1994) and Warhol v. Goldsmith (2023), the Second Circuit reversed. The Court explained that “the district court’s analysis depended on a misunderstanding of the fair use doctrine and of how the facts of the case relate to the doctrine. We see no basis in the facts alleged in the complaint for a finding of fair use.”

The Second Circuit explained that the district court misapplied the first fair use factor (“the purpose and character of the use”). The Court noted that a transformative use must do more than merely assert a different message; it must communicate a new meaning or purpose through the act of copying itself. Here, Amilus’ use of Romanova’s photograph did not alter or comment on the original work but merely republished it in a commercial context.

The Second Circuit also found no basis for the district court’s finding of justification for the copying, a factor that typically depends on the nature of the message communicated through the copying, such as parody or satire, and was mandated by the Supreme Court in Warhol. The Court rejected the notion that Amilus’ editorial framing – claiming to highlight a trend in pet photography – could justify the unauthorized use.

On the procedural issue, the majority noted that an “overly rigid refusal to consider an affirmative defense sua sponte can make a lawsuit an instrument of abuse. A defendant’s default does not necessarily mean that the defendant has insouciantly snubbed the legal process.” In this case, the Second Circuit explained that it “cannot fault the district court for considering a defense which it believed (albeit mistakenly) was valid and important. While district courts should [...]

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